| | “Gluttony is … a sign that something is eating us.” —Peter De Vries1 George Rector, a celebrated restaurateur in New York City, called him “the best 25 customers I ever had.”2 He was referring to James Buchanan “Diamond Jim” Brady (1856-1917), who is famous in culinary history because of his gargantuan appetite. A typical breakfast for Brady consisted of eggs, pancakes, pork chops, cornbread, fried potatoes, hominy, muffins, and a beefsteak. He washed down this sumptuous selection with a gallon of orange juice, his favorite drink. A midmorning snack might consist of two or three dozen oysters or clams. For lunch, Diamond Jim might consume two lobsters, deviled crabs, clams, oysters, and beef, topped off with nearly a whole pie for dessert, and another gallon of orange juice. At teatime, he enjoyed another platter of seafood, with lemon soda. This was a warm-up for dinner, which started with an appetizer of two dozen oysters, six crabs, and two bowls of green turtle soup, followed by a main course of two whole ducks, six or seven lobsters, a large sirloin steak, two servings of terrapin meat, lots of vegetables, pastry, and two gallons of orange juice. He would mash a pound of caviar into his baked potatoes. Dessert began with a tray of pastries and ended with a two-pound box of chocolates. Later in the evening, he enjoyed an après-theater supper of a few game birds and more orange juice. Brady's favored restaurants included the Waldorf-Astoria, Delmonico's, and Rector's. An interesting calculation preceded dinner. Prior to the meal, he would leave four inches between his sizable belly and the table. When his belly met the table, dinner was over. Diamond Jim was not only big in girth, but also big at heart. He was generous, sweet tempered, and charming. People loved his company. He was said to respond invariably with donations to poor people he met who were down on their luck. He never touched liquor, tobacco, coffee, or tea. He was never known to tell a lie. He was gregarious, and he loved to give dinner parties, often to large groups. He once invited 50 guests to a dinner that began at four pm and lasted until nine am. The meal cost $45,000 at the time, or approximately half a million dollars at today's value. Brady was a hard worker who came from humble beginnings. He had no college education, but this did not hold him back. Beginning as a bellboy and as a messenger boy for the New York Central Railroad, he became a phenomenally successful salesman of railroad equipment. He rose to be president and director of several railroad-related companies. His fortune was estimated at approximately $20 million dollars at the time of his death, or around 10 times that figure in today's terms. During the Gilded Age, prodigious eating and other excesses were generally considered endearing eccentricities rather than vulgar displays. Brady therefore did not consider his eating habits as gluttony, or as a shortcoming at all. “Outside my diamonds,” he once said, “I have no vice.”3 He was referring to his penchant for jewels, particularly diamonds, which he wore ostentatiously—diamond-encrusted watches, rings, cufflinks, tie and garter clasps, stick pins, suspender buckles, and pens. Even his underwear was bejeweled. His fondness extended beyond diamonds, however. One night he would appear on Broadway resplendent in diamonds, the next night in rubies or emeralds. His jewel collection was valued at $50 million in today's currency. He considered his precious gems almost as living things, referring to them as his pets. Although he was the best-known figure in the nightlife on Broadway, Diamond Jim's fame spread as far as the Golden Gate. He was known as the first person in New York City to own an automobile, which he bought in 1895. He maintained a luxurious apartment at the princely sum of $1,000 a week. He adored dancing, as well as theater and opera. He was known for his romantic association with the famous actress and singer Lillian Russell, who was widely adored for her voluptuous beauty, style, voice, and stage presence. He supported her extravagant lifestyle for four decades. It was rumored that Russell's eating habits were a perfect match for his own, and her enlarging figure over the years suggested this was the case.4 Brady's gluttony caught up with him. After years of consuming enough food for 10 people, he developed diabetes, cardiac disease, hypertension, stomach problems, and recurrent prostatitis. It is said that physicians determined his stomach to be six times larger than that of the average individual. In 1917, at age 61, he died in his sleep. At this point, Brady enters the annals of American medicine. He left his jewel collection to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and a huge sum to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where he had once been treated. The hospital created the James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute in his honor.3 He remains better known by his moniker—Diamond Jim—and his portrait still hangs in the lobby of the Urological Institute. In our cynical age, nitpickers have questioned Brady's Olympic eating. A columnist for The New York Times has recently called him a “gastronomical fraud.” Physicians have also tried to shrink him down to size. According to Dr George Fielding, an associate professor of surgery at New York University, it is entirely possible that Brady might have periodically eaten the colossal quantities attributed to him at one sitting. But he adds, “Every day, for breakfast, lunch and dinner? No, impossible. That man would have exploded.”5 Competitive Eating  Diamond Jim's life is a cautionary tale of the dangers of gluttony, derived from Latin words meaning “to devour,” and from which gullet is also derived.6 Gluttony is not limited to the leisurely, monstrous meals that brought Diamond Jim Brady so much pleasure. A modern variant is competitive eating, in which one eats enormous quantities of food as fast as possible without discernible enjoyment or delight. On July 4, 2009, Joey “Jaws” Chestnut, 25, of San Jose, California, won the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, held on Coney Island nearly every Independence Day since 1916. Jaws downed 68 hot dogs in 10 minutes. This is an astonishing advance over the 1916 event, when 13 hot dogs were enough to win.7 This event is sanctioned by the International Federation of Competitive Eating (IFOCE), which hosts more than 100 so-called “major league eating events” worldwide every year. Gluttony pays; IFOCE awarded competitive eaters $350,000 in prize money in 2006. Competitive eating is becoming wildly popular. The July 4 event is now televised live on ESPN, and IFOCE has recently produced a series of 30-minute television shows, Eats of Strength, featuring the top eaters of IFOCE. There's now an online community, similar to MySpace, for competitive eaters and competitive-eating fans.8 From 2001 through 2006, the July 4 Nathan's event was dominated by Takeru “The Tsunami” Kobayashi, 31, of Nagano, Japan. In 2001, Kobayashi stunned the competitive-eating world by eating 50 hot dogs, doubling the previous record. He is a multitalented, versatile eater with skills in many areas. His four IFOCE eating records include bratwurst (58 with the bun in 10 minutes), cow brains (17.7 pounds in 15 minutes), and rice balls (20 pounds in 30 minutes). In 2007, Jaws dethroned The Tsunami at the Nathan's July 4 event, and in 2008 the two men tied at 59 hot dogs in 10 minutes. Jaws won an eat off in overtime, in which he was the first to finish eating five additional hot dogs. You can imagine the excitement prior to the 2009 matchup between Jaws and The Tsunami. After the first minute, The Tsunami had a slight lead, but within seconds Jaws pulled ahead. The lead seesawed back and forth several times over the next couple of minutes, keeping fans in suspense, but with seven minutes to go Jaws captured the lead and coasted to victory. By the time he entered the victory circle and “The Star Spangled Banner” played, Chestnut had consumed 68 hot dogs to Kobayashi's 64 and a half. Jaws felt confident all along. “After the second minute, I knew that my body was cooperating and it was going to be hard to beat me,” he told ESPN. “I knew I had the capacity for 70-plus hot dogs. Once I realized I had cushion, it helped me keep my pace and keep it safely.” He was gracious in victory. “Kobayashi came out wanting to win. He ate the most he ever has,” he said. The champ said he planned to celebrate his victory that night with a Cobb salad with ranch dressing. Competition among “gurgitators,” as competitive eaters are called, is fierce. Consider, for instance, the feats of Pat “Deep Dish” Bertoletti, 24, of Chicago, who was ranked number two in the world by IFOCE in 2008. Deep Dish has won 50 eating contests with 26 second-place finishes and has earned more than $130,000 in career winnings. His 23 IFOCE records demonstrate his adaptability and include corned beef and cabbage (10.63 pounds in 10 minutes), key lime pie (10.8 pounds in eight minutes), calamari (6.6 pounds in 10 minutes), waffles (29 8-ounce waffles in 10 minutes), ice cream (1.75 gallons in eight minutes), jalapeño peppers (266 in 15 minutes), and strawberry shortcake (15.25 pounds in eight minutes. He holds the record for the most food by weight ever consumed in a competitive eating contest—21 pounds of grits in 10 minutes at the 2007 Louisiana Downs Grits Eating Championship. In the 2009 Nathan's contest, he finished third, with 55 hot dogs. Gluttony and Morality Competitive eating seems to be a clear-cut example of gluttony, which has long been considered a moral failing. Gluttony is considered by the Catholic church to be the second of the seven deadly sins. The early Christians saw plenty of examples of gluttony and obesity among the Roman elite and their emperors during the first and second centuries ad. Profligate consumption of food and drink were common. “Eating well was not just a daily ritual, it was a philosophy and a way of life in Imperial Rome,” says anthropologist Deborah Ruscillo of the University of Winnipeg. “Your reputation and acceptance in the upper echelons of society were often determined by your abilities as a generous host and as a connoisseur.”9 Apicius is a collection of early Roman recipes from the fourth or fifth century ad. It provides an insight into the desire of the upper echelons of Roman society for delicacies and extravagant eating, with recipes for exotic items such as flamingo tongues, camel heels, and roasted ostrich.10 Perhaps the most scathing exposé of the gluttony, vulgarity, and ostentation of the Roman wealthy is the novel Satyricon by Petronius (ca ad 27-66). One of the most memorable scenes is a grotesquely lavish dinner at the villa of Trimalchio, a freedman of enormous wealth, featuring delicacies such as dormice, capons, fish, sausages, peahen eggs, and orioles. Petronius' Satyricon formed the backdrop for the 1969 film of the same name by legendary Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini. Many critics found the movie “frenzied,” an exercise in “debauchery” and “revelry,” and an attempt “at making the viewer feel ill at ease”—which may not be far from Petronius' original intent.11 Saint Paul predicted destruction for those “whose god is their belly” (Philippians 3:19, KJV). Medieval church leaders such as Thomas Aquinas expanded and refined the concept of gluttony, listing six ways one could commit gluttonous eating: by eating too soon, too expensively, too much, too eagerly, too keenly, and too wildly.12 Saint John of the Cross warned of spiritual gluttony, which was committed by those who continually search for “spiritual sweetness”—the need to “feel and taste God, as if he were palpable and accessible to them not only in Communion but in all their other acts of devotion.”13 Gluttony and Obesity Gluttony, in its broadest meaning, is the overindulgence or overconsumption of anything—not just food—to the point of waste. Although not all gluttony involves overeating and obesity, most instances of obesity reflect gluttony, simply because one is wastefully consuming excessive calories the body does not need. The sheer wastefulness of gluttonous eating is considered by some to be its most offensive feature. In a blistering editorial, actor Ryan Reynolds contends that competitive eating contests are a shameless celebration of waste and are therefore an insult to poverty-stricken, starving populations around the world.14 The reasons that are most frequently cited as causes of obesity are excessive calorie intake, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibility, compounded by social factors such as poverty and low education, which lead to hardships in affording healthful foods. Yet there are numerous additional trends in the United States that are contributing to the rising obesity rates:15(pp3,18) •Americans consume an average of 300 more calories per day than they did 25 years ago, and the food they eat is less nutritious •nutritious foods are significantly more expensive than calorie-dense, less nutritious foods •Americans walk less and drive more, even for short distances •parks and recreation spaces are not considered safe in many neighborhoods •many school lunch programs do not meet nutrition standards, and children engage in less physical activity in school •increased screen time (TV, computers, video games) contributes to less physical activity, particularly for children •adults often work longer hours at sedentary jobs and commute further Obesity in History Obesity carries considerable social stigma, risk of lowered self-esteem, depression, and poorer physical health. However, during certain periods in history, obesity has been valued as a symbol of wealth and fertility. This continues to be true in sub-Saharan Africa, the only remaining area on earth where obesity is not common.16 Prior to the industrial revolution, malnutrition was commonplace in Europe and England. It came to be realized that the economic development and the military might of nations were dependent on strong, healthy workers and soldiers. As nutrition improved, height and weight increased in the industrialized world during the nineteenth century. During the twentieth century, populations reached their genetic potential for height, but weight continued to rise, leading to the current worldwide epidemic of obesity. Social norms regarding weight are not static. Beginning in the 1920s, Americans' view of an ideal weight began to decrease. From 1922 to 1999, the average height of Miss America pageant winners increased by 2%, whereas their average weight decreased by 12%.17 In recent years, however, the concept of an ideal weight in wealthy Western nations has changed, as populations have become fatter.18 Beyond Calories I suggest there are fundamental forces driving people to eat more than they require that are not accounted for by the obviously important factors of calories, exercise, and genes. Culture and Custom The Venus figurines dating to around 20,000 to 35,000 bc are believed to be the first sculptural representations of the human body. Some, such as the Venus of Willendorf (Figure 1), are astonishingly corpulent—huge, pendulous breasts, gigantic bellies, and enormous thighs. Although some believe that this massive obesity symbolizes fertility, others feel that the figurines could be actual representations of people at the time. They point to the “relative linearity of warm-dwelling peoples, and the relative globularity of cold-dwelling ones” at least as far back as the Paleolithic era.19 In Greek and Roman art, however, corpulence is absent, perhaps in keeping with the Greek ideal of moderation and the ideal human. In early Christian European art, it is generally only those of low socioeconomic status who are represented as obese. By the Renaissance, however, obesity enters European painting. In some canvases, the rich flaunt their large size. Rubens regularly painted full-bodied, stout women, from which the term Rubenesque is derived. By the 19th century, however, slimness began once again to assert itself as the ideal.19 Sexuality Since early Christian times, there has been an implied connection between gluttony and sex. Overindulgence was viewed as a gateway to the sins of sloth and lust. A modern example of these connections is the critically acclaimed 1963 movie Tom Jones, an adaptation of Henry Fielding's classic 1749 novel, The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling. In the movie, Tom saves a certain Mrs Waters from an evil redcoat officer and later beds her. In a celebrated scene, Tom and Mrs Waters sit opposite each other in the dining room of the Upton Inn, silently consuming an enormous meal while gazing seductively and lustfully at each other.20 If anyone doubts a connection between obesity and sex, try a Google search for “fat porno.” My recent search turned up over a million hits. Religion The trend toward obesity may also be fed by religious factors. One of the most prevalent premonitions in American society—an expectation that is held by 59% of our citizens, according to a 2002 Time/CNN poll—is that of apocalyptic, global doom, as prophesied in the book of Revelation.21 What are the consequences of living with a chronic premonition of doom? One result might be the tendency to eat like there's no tomorrow—which there may not be, if the apocalypse believers are correct. As Louise Inkel, a Canadian citizen, writes in New Scientist magazine, “Be it cataclysmic climate change or Armageddon, such threats of impending doom can surely trigger behaviors meant to insure survival. Just as other animals make provisions for winter (often in the form of body fat), couldn't we be unconsciously taking measures to withstand threatened hardships?”22 Although there have been wars and famines throughout human history, Inkel states, never has there been such an abundance of food. Inkel is not suggesting that humans, sensing doom, are engaging in a bacchanal of overeating and overdrinking—the Last Big Party. Rather, they are answering a primordial instinct that evolved to insure survival—laying on fat as a hedge against possible food shortages and starvation later on. There's evidence that she may be correct. Those Americans who sense Armageddon most keenly are among the fattest. Sociologist Kenneth Ferarro, director of the Center on Aging and the Life Course at the University of Purdue, found that Christians weigh more on average than other religious groups such as Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and unchurched individuals.23 He also found that, regardless of the particular religion, religious people tend to weigh more than their nonreligious counterparts. States with high rates of religious affiliation have some of the highest rates of overweight citizens. For example, according to the 2009 report, F as in Fat: How Obesity Policies Are Failing in America, by the Trust for America's Health of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,15(p10) the top 10 states with the highest obesity rates were, in descending order, Mississippi, Alabama, West Virginia, Tennessee, South Carolina, Oklahoma, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Arkansas, and Ohio. The top 10 states with the lowest obesity rates were, in descending order, Colorado, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Hawaii, Vermont, District of Columbia, Utah, Montana, and New Jersey. The top ten high-obesity states are generally considered the so-called Bible Belt states, whereas the top ten low-obesity states are not. But is fundamentalist religious belief a direct correlate of obesity, or is it a surrogate or stand-in factor for something else? Poverty is the most frequently mentioned proxy. Yet, although obesity appears to have some relationship with poverty in many states, there are notable exceptions. In fact, many of the states with the highest poverty rates are among the states with the lowest rates of obesity, according to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation report.15(p16) For instance, although the District of Columbia ranks second in poverty, it ranks 45th in obesity. Texas, which has the fourth highest poverty rate, is 14th in the obesity ranking. And New Mexico, the fifth state in the poverty ranking, is 36th in obesity ranking. Among Christian denominations, Baptists, including Southern and North American Baptists, demonstrated the highest rate of obesity in Ferraro's study. His data on obesity in ministers revealed that 60% of Southern Baptist ministers and their spouses were overweight and 47% were obese, a rate similar to the national average. The difference was that those who were obese were very obese. Church spokespersons attributed this problem to job stress.24, 25 Biblical predictions aren't the only doomsday scenarios that are circulating. Currently, historian Paul Boyer notes, “A kind of secular apocalyptic sensibility pervades much contemporary writing about our current world. Many books about environmental dangers, whether it be the ozone layer, or global warming or pollution of the air or water, or population explosion, are cast in an apocalyptic mold.”26, 27 In March 2009, the Gallup Environment Survey measured public concern about eight specific environmental issues.28 The issues that were surveyed, and the percentage of Americans who were “worried a great deal or fair amount” about them, are as follows: •pollution of drinking water (84%) •water pollution in general (83%) •toxic contamination of soil/water (80%) •supply of fresh water for households (80%) •air pollution (76%) •loss of rain forest (68%) •extinction of plants and animals (65%) •global warming (60%) If I am convinced that the world I live in is seriously poisoned—as the Gallup Environmental Survey suggests is the case for around 80% of Americans—or if I am among the nearly 60% of our society who believes that Armageddon is just around the corner, why should I care about dietary precautions? No prisoner on death row ever worried about the dangers of cholesterol or too many calories. Today, an increasing number of individuals feel as if we're on a death row of sorts, moving toward the end. Every meal may be our last. Why not enjoy it—lots of it? According to this line of thought, the urge toward obesity in the face of looming difficulties and threats to health has little to do with conscious choice but is probably a built-in behavior whose purpose is to help an organism survive approaching hard times. Bears lay on fat to survive the approaching winter; humans may eat to survive “winter” as well, whatever version it may take. The Pendulum Effect A pendulum effect may be operating in favor of obesity. Western societies may be experiencing a collective revulsion toward the skeletal, emaciated, anorexic image ideals that have wreaked untold damage on the minds, bodies, and lives of teenage girls and young women around the world in countries exposed to Western movies, celebrities, and fashion models. One way of expressing rejection of this destructive body image is simply to eat. But can the pendulum swing too far? Aggressive efforts by “size activists” toward a greater cultural acceptance, even glorification, of obesity have been growing in recent years.29 An example is the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance, founded in 1969 to improve the quality of life for fat people and to eliminate discrimination based on body size; there are local chapters throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe.30 They have their work cut out for them because of the health risks and the ballooning healthcare expenditures associated with chronic obesity. From 2001 to 2005 in the United States, spending on health problems related to obesity rose 82%. During this five-year period, obese adults were associated with over half the growth in healthcare spending.31 Moral Regulation One of the axioms of many weight-management experts is that diets don't work. People may initially lose weight on almost any regimen, but within a few months or years they are back where they started, as fat or fatter than ever. In an analysis of 31 weight-loss studies in which subjects were followed for at least a year, one third to two thirds of dieters gained back more weight than they lost.32 Insight into why this scenario is prevalent may have been provided by the coauthors of “Sinning Saints and Saintly Sinners: The Paradox of Moral Self-Regulation.”33 Douglas Medin, professor of psychology, and his colleagues Sonya Sachdeva and Rumen Iliev, of the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences at Northwestern University, performed an experiment in which participants were asked to write a self-relevant story containing words referring to either positive or negative traits. Subjects who wrote a story referring to the positive traits donated only one fifth as much play money to a fictitious charity as those who wrote a story referring to negative traits. The loftier their view of themselves, the stingier they behaved, and the more negative they viewed themselves, the more charitable they were. The study suggests that people with a high degree of self-worth in one area of their life can slip into immoral behavior in other areas. It's as if there is a set point for goodness in each person, and if one becomes too good, negative behaviors kick in to balance out all that goodness. Conversely, if individuals find themselves at an immoral place in their lives, compensatory behaviors arise to make them behave in a more moral fashion. A kind of moral homeostasis seems to be operating. When people operate above or below a certain level of moral self-worth, they instinctively push back in the opposite direction to achieve an intrinsic baseline of goodness. “Imagine a line on a plane,” says Sachdeva. “If you go above that line, you feel pressure to come back down. The only way you can come back down is either by refraining from good social behavior or by actively engaging in immoral behavior.”34 This idea seems to fit with human experience. Consider the fall from grace of New York governor Eliot Spitzer. Spitzer was considered a paragon of correctness and was known as the sheriff of Wall Street. As New York State Attorney General, he routinely prosecuted the high and mighty for their illegal shenanigans but was disgraced overnight by his involvement with a high-priced prostitute ring. Extramarital affairs also sullied the reputations of South Carolina Senator Mark Sanford and Nevada Senator John Ensign, who were vocal proponents of family values and the sanctity of marriage. The string of ostensibly highly moral preachers and priests who have been implicated in extramarital affairs and childhood sexual abuse is too long to mention. If there is a moral dimension to gluttony and obesity, as a great deal of historical, religious, and cultural evidence suggests, this fact may help us understand why the treatment of obesity is so intractable. If a person gains too much weight, feelings of low self-esteem and guilt kick in, influencing the shedding of a few pounds via dieting and exercise. As they move toward slimness, the person may eventually move above his/her moral set point, at which point the compensatory urge to “be bad” may assert itself in the face of too much goodness. Overeating follows. This up-and-down, whipsaw pattern of obesity persists in many people across a lifetime. Moral homeostasis may help explain why certain religious groups have a special proclivity toward obesity, as we saw above. If a religion leads to inflated self-worth, or to the opposite extreme of self-depravity, moral regulation may assert itself with a vengeance, making its followers especially prone to the recurring cycle of obesity and weight loss. Responsibility Treating obesity, like stopping smoking, remains largely a matter of self-responsibility, no matter how many factors may cloud the issue. This is not what many people want to hear, nor has it ever been. Ambrose Bierce (1842-1914), the American humorist and author, in his satirical The Devil's Dictionary, wrote, “RESPONSIBILITY, n. A detachable burden easily shifted to the shoulders of God, Fate, Fortune, Luck or one's neighbor. In the days of astrology it was customary to unload it upon a star.”35 Things haven't changed all that much since Bierce excoriated Americans a hundred years ago. Personal responsibility remains a detachable burden. We unload our responsibility for our health onto our lot in life, society, healthcare professionals, or our genes, which have become the modern version of Fate. In fairness, responsibility for obesity is not limited to those who are overweight. As long as slimness and health favor the rich, and as long as poverty, illiteracy, and poor education remain determinants of health, responsibility extends to some degree to everyone who cares about a healthy society. Conclusion America is not the fattest country on earth—Australia holds that dubious honor—but we are in second place and our obesity rates are on the rise.36 I suggest that, in addition to the obvious factors contributing to this health disaster—calories, exercise, and genetic predisposition—subtle factors may be equally powerful. These factors operate invisibly and powerfully, off the stage of awareness. They involve our cultural history, the bugaboo of sexuality, religion, fears of doom, our attitudes about body image, and the vicissitudes of moral regulation. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation report calls the obesity epidemic a “national crisis.”15 In dealing with it, it is more convenient to focus on the evils of dietary fructose, Big Macs, and super-sized portions than to peer into the depths of the human mind for clues about how, what, and why we eat. But if we are to deal effectively with this national crisis, we must expand our consciousness faster than our girth. References 1. 1De Vries P. ThinkExist.com. http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/Peter_De_Vries/. 2. 2Business: M. M. and M. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,759002,00.html. 3. 3Diamond Jim Brady dies while asleep. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B04EEDD153AE433A25757C1A9629C946696D6CF. 4. 4Lillian Russell. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Russell. 5. 5Kamp D. Whether true or false, a real stretch. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/31/dining/31diam.html?pagewanted=print. 6. 6Webster's New World Dictionary. 2nd ed. sv “gluttony.” Guralnik DB, ed. New York, NY: Prentice Hall; 1984. 7. 7Reigning champ Joey Chestnut wins hot dog eating contest. http://www.nypost.com/seven/07042009/news/regionalnews/brooklyn/eaters_compete_in_hot_dog_contest_177581.htm. 8. 8Competitive eating (Wikipedia). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_eating. 9. 9Ruscillo D. When gluttony ruled!. Archaelogy. 2001;54(6):365–368 http://www.archaeology.org/0111/abstracts/romans.html. 10. 10Apicius, The Roman Cookery Book. London, England: Harrap; 1958;. 11. 11Satyricon. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyricon_(film). 12. 12Okholm D. Rx for gluttony. http://www.ctlibrary.com/ct/2000/september4/3.62.html. 13. 13Delany J. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Company; 1909;http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06590a.htm. 14. 14Reynolds R. Competitive eating. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ryan-reynolds/competitive-eating_b_50682.html. 15. 15Levi J, Vinter S, Richardson , St. Laurent R, Segal LM. F is for Fat: How Obesity Policies Are Failing in America. Princeton, NJ: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; 2009;. 16. 16Haslam DW, James WP. Obesity. Lancet. 2005;366(9492):197–209. Full Text |
Full-Text PDF (41 KB)
|
CrossRef
17. 17Rubinstein S, Caballero B. Is Miss America an undernourished role model?. JAMA. 2000;283:1569. MEDLINE |
CrossRef
18. 18Johnson F, Cooke L, Croker H, Wardle J. Changing perceptions of weight in Great Britain: comparison of two population surveys. BMJ. 2008;337:494. 19. 19Woodhouse R. Obesity in art: a brief overview. Front Horm Res. 2008;36:271–286. 20. 20Jones Tom. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Jones_(film). 21. 21Moyers B. There is no tomorrow. Minneapolis Star Tribune. January 30, 2005;http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article7960.htm. 22. 22Inkel L. Fat is a fear issue [letter to the editor]. New Scientist. December 16, 2006; http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19225820.100-fat-is-a-fear-issue.html. 23. 23Furr R. The heavyweights are Christians. http://ethicsdaily.com/news.php?viewStory=311. 24. 24Deardorff J. Too much nourishment for the soul?. Chicago Tribune. September 12, 2006;http://news.uns.purdue.edu/Clips/2006/sept/060912.Ferrarofood.html. 25. 25Ferraro K. Study finds some faithful less likely to pass the plate. http://news.uns.purdue.edu/html4ever/2006/060824.Ferraro.obesity.html. 26. 26Boyer P. Quoted in: Scherer G. The godly must be crazy: Christian-right views are swaying politicians and threatening the environment. http://www.grist.org/article/scherer-christian/. 27. 27McCarthy M. Environment in crisis: ‘We are past the point of no return.'. The Independent. January 16, 2006;http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0116-06.htm. 28. 28Saad L. Increased number think global warming is “exaggerated.”. http://www.gallup.com/poll/116590/Increased-Number-Think-Global-Warming-Exaggerated.aspx. 29. 29Neema F. Proud to be fat: the big beautiful women. http://www.editorial.fnphoto.com/stories/2124/2124txt.pdf. 30. 30 http://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/. 31. 31Fiore K. Obese account for greatest jump in healthcare costs. http://www.medpagetoday.com/PrimaryCare/Obesity/15015. 32. 32DeNoon DJ. Diets don't work long-term; most who go on diets gain weight back; lifestyle change needed. http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20070411/diets-dont-work-long-term. 33. 33Sachdeva S, Iliev R, Medin DL. Sinning saints and saintly sinners: the paradox of moral self-regulation. Psychol Sci. 2009;20:523–528.
CrossRef
34. 34Tremmel PV. Why saints sin and sinners get saintly. Northwestern University Newscenter; June 26, 2009;http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-06/nu-wss062609.php. 35. 35Bierce A. The Devil's Dictionary. http://www.alcyone.com/max/lit/devils/r.html. 36. 36Australia now fattest country, study says. http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2008/06/20/Australia-now-fattest-country-study-says/UPI-23231213998709/. PII: S1550-8307(09)00366-8 doi:10.1016/j.explore.2009.11.002 © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. | |
|
FULL TEXT00366-8/journalimage?img=PIIS1550830709003668.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1550-8307&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage');)
